tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-10010593180677962302024-02-08T00:35:46.214-05:00The Making of SenseEssays on the History of InformationAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-72872745604208151852018-02-17T09:22:00.003-05:002018-02-17T09:34:32.420-05:00One Damned Thing After Another<div class="Paragraph">
For most people, the world “grammar” implies the dullest of
subjects. The g-word conjures up associations of pedantic English teachers enforcing
the tedious memorization of rules. That’s a shame because grammar is actually
one of the most extraordinary adaptions in all of nature.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Words are spoken in
sequence, one after another. In making sense of language, the human mind
transforms linear sequences of words into non-linear structures of thought.
This ability, known as parsing, is at the core of how the mind processes and
comprehends language.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Last night as I
was driving home, I saw a sign that read “HUGE KIDS SALE.” Knowing that our
society prohibits the sale of huge kids, I parsed the phrase into a little thought
structure shaped like this:</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT4l1fOWulcHQPZ_1wGPERcDKe4o-NGaZNTHExX_a6JmRkIIdirHBQdClEOd7JlZ53PAP6YCe8Rb_r5Rty0z1gIFTdDMTzZTc3U_B11xCnKxQkVpU_-waojLiTZauqEc6hUOZbW0JYCzkm/s1600/h.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="86" data-original-width="158" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT4l1fOWulcHQPZ_1wGPERcDKe4o-NGaZNTHExX_a6JmRkIIdirHBQdClEOd7JlZ53PAP6YCe8Rb_r5Rty0z1gIFTdDMTzZTc3U_B11xCnKxQkVpU_-waojLiTZauqEc6hUOZbW0JYCzkm/s1600/h.png" /></a></div>
</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
In parsing, the mind represents a phrase at two levels. At
the surface level are the sounds, the specific meanings of the words, and the
order of words—one thing after another. The mind transforms this into an
abstract, invisible, inaudible, tree-like structure of thought.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
We can make out
the structure of a sentence even when we don’t know the meaning of all the
words. That’s why we can parse the first sentence of Lewis Carroll’s
nonsensical poem, “Jabberwocky.”<br />
<br />
“T'was brillig, and the slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe."<br />
<br />
We know, for instance, that “toves” must be a plural noun
and that “gyre” and “gimble” must be present-tense verbs.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
We make these
transformations based on grammar. We don’t have to learn millions of different
possible sentence structures—just a small set of rules.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-text-raise: 4.0pt; position: relative; top: -4.0pt;">___<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
As language evolved, some of the words were transformed
into markers of grammar through a process known as grammartization. A good
example is the word “will,” which originally was a verb meaning “to want” or
“to wish,” but is now most often used to signal the future tense (as in “I <i>will</i> be there”). Another example is the
word “it” in the sentence, “<i>It</i> is
raining.” In that sentence, the word “it” has no meaning, but serves a purely
grammatical function as the subject of the sentence.</div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
It’s hard to say
exactly how our rules of grammar developed. All human societies possess
language with fully-formed systems of grammar; there are no half-baked grammars
that we can point to as examples of what the intermediate stages might have
been like.</div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
The early stages
of grammar might have been roughly similar to a child’s early stages of
language development. The first utterances were probably single nouns:<br />
<br />
“Bear”<br />
<br />
then combinations of nouns:<br />
<br />
“Dad bear”<br />
<br />
In time, people began using some of their nouns to refer to
actions, like when we say “<i>water</i> the
plants” or “<i>handle</i> the situation,”
thus creating verbs. They could then began to string to together sequences of
nouns and verbs:<br />
<br />
“Dad bear chase”<br />
<br />
At some point, societies established agreed-upon rules of
syntax that determined how the order of words affects their meaning. The rules
might have determined, for example, that “Dad chase bear” was good news, and
“Bear chase Dad” was bad.</div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
The most basic
rule of syntax is that a sentence can consist of a word for a thing, a word for
an action, and often a word for another thing—otherwise known as a subject,
verb, and object. If language can be said to have one primary function, it is
to answer the question, “Who did what?” That’s what sentences do.</div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
Sentences grew
more complex as new grammatical devices entered the language. These included
verb tenses:<br />
<br />
“Bear <i>chased </i>Dad.”<br />
<br />
articles and pronouns:<br />
<br />
“<i>A</i> bear chased <i>my </i>dad.”<br />
<br />
prepositional phrases:<br />
<br />
“A bear chased my dad <i>up a tree</i>.”<br />
<br />
passive constructions, in which the object is placed at the
beginning of the sentence:<br />
<br />
“My dad <i>was chased</i> up a tree by a bear.”<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
and recursion, in which phrases refer to other phrases:<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
“<i>My mom said that </i>my dad was chased up a tree by a bear.”</div>
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<div class="paragraph0">
When we listen to someone speak, we experience each
sentence in real time, one word at a time. At any given moment, we are usually
somewhere in the middle of a sentence, yet we usually understand what the
speaker is talking about. That’s because our minds can build tree structures
“on the fly” based on the words we’ve heard so far. The process is so natural that
we become aware of it only in the rare cases when it breaks down.<span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"> </span>Try parsing this sentence: <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Quote1">
“The old man the boat.” <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
Huh? You probably had to read that one a couple times
before it made sense. The first time through, you naturally assumed that “The old
man” was a noun phrase, so when “the boat” came along, you found yourself up
the creek without a verb. You had to rebuild your tree, reinterpreting it with
“old” as a noun and “man” as a verb. (“The old man the boat. The young stay
ashore.”) <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
<br /></div>
<div class="paragraph0">
“The old man the
boat” is an example of a garden path sentence, a devious sentence that lures
you into an interpretation that turns out to be a dead end. So are these: <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Quote1">
“The man whistling tunes pianos.”</div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br />
“The author wrote the novel was likely to be a best seller.” <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br />
“The cotton clothing is made of grows in Mississippi.” <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br />
“The horse raced past the barn fell.”<span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
As garden path sentences make obvious, parsing is a matter of prediction and guesswork. As we listen to (or read) a sentence, we make guesses about how each word is <i>probably </i>going to fit into the overall structure of the sentence. Fortunately those guesses are right most of the time, so we are able to parse sentences correctly at around 150 words per minute—an impressively high rate of speed.</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-7291789466033167342018-02-16T08:25:00.003-05:002018-02-16T08:34:48.647-05:00Part 1: Language<br />
<div class="Paragraph">
We tend to think in symbols, usually in words. We shape our
thoughts into phrases and sentences as a way of rehearsing what we’re going to
say. But even when we have no intention of speaking, even when there’s no one
else around, the habit persists and the internal monologue goes on. The mind
always seems to have something to say. Language and thought have co-evolved in
humans for so long that they are now inseparable. Thought has shaped the way we
speak, and language has shaped the way we think.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br />
Language was a
game changer. It ushered in a whole new way of thinking, a whole new way of
being. Language pushed our species over a tipping point between the
symbol-sparse world of animals and symbol-rich world of civilization,
connecting minds to other minds and transforming the miracle of consciousness
into the miracle of culture.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
Next: <a href="https://themakingofsense.blogspot.ca/2018/01/talking-heads.html">Talking Heads</a></div>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-70748242958805270142018-01-28T14:37:00.004-05:002018-02-17T10:31:08.024-05:00The Ten Thousands Things<div class="Paragraph">
Linguists have come up with a number of amusingly named
theories of how the first words might have been created. One theory (called the
mama theory) is that language began with people attaching the easiest syllables
to the most significant objects. Another (the pooh-pooh theory) says that
language began with yelp-like interjections, as when we say “ouch” to express
pain or “oh” to express surprise. Yet another (the bow wow theory) says that
language began with onomatopoeic words that mimicked the things they denoted,
as when a child calls a dog a “bow wow” or a train a “choo choo.”</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
A similar theory
(the ding dong theory) is that the sounds of words are related to their
meanings through a concept known as sound symbolism. In a 1929 experiment,
psychologists showed participants two shapes and asked which was a “takete” and
which was a “baluba.”</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
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<br />
There was an almost unanimous tendency to name the jagged
shape a “takete” and the rounded shape a “baluba,” suggesting some sort of
mapping between shape and sound.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
It seems somehow
fitting that a cactus is called a “cactus” and not a “willow,” and that a flea
is called a “flea” and not a “hippopotamus.” There is often some sort of
metaphorical mapping between sound and concept. Notice, for example, how the
inside of your mouth gets smaller as you say “teeny” and bigger as you say “large.”
Many of the seemingly arbitrary words we use today probably originated with
some non-arbitrary association that is now lost to history.</div>
<div align="center" class="aparagraph" style="margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-text-raise: 4.0pt; position: relative; top: -4.0pt;">___<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Once the idea of words took root, people went about naming
things. When something is named with a word that sticks, that concept is said
to be lexicalized. Each culture lexicalizes as many concepts as it considers
worth talking about. There is an urban myth that Eskimos have 500 words for
snow, while English- speakers have only one. That’s wrong on both counts. According
to the linguist, Geoffrey Pullum, the Inuit have about a dozen words for snow,
and English speakers have almost as many (including “slush,” “sleet,” “powder,”
“flurry,” “dusting,” “blizzard,” “avalanche,” and “squall”). This is not to say
that there is a word for every meaningful concept. In English, there is a word
for light red (“pink”), but no single word for light blue. There is a word for
brothers and sisters (“siblings”), but no word for nieces and nephews.
Lexicalization is somewhat hit-or-miss.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
The ancient
Chinese sage Lao Tzu said, “The word, once introduced, become the mother of the
ten thousand things.” His point was that true reality is an interconnected
unity, though we tend to speak of it—and therefore falsely think of it—as a
bunch of disconnected concepts. Words chop the world into discrete categories
of thought, drawing lines of separation and contrast even where no natural
discontinuities exist.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Take colors, for
example. In English, we tend to speak of colors as though they are crayons in a
thirteen-crayon box. According to the Corpus of Contemporary American English,
the most commonly used color word is “black,” which is used as an adjective
14.7 times in every million words. The thirteen most frequently used color
words are: “black,” “white,” “red,” “blue,” “green,” “yellow,” “gray,” “brown,”
“pink,” “gold,” “orange,” “silver,” and “purple.” In fourteenth place is “tan,”
which occurs with less than half the frequency of “purple.” The rest of the
list includes such b-list colors as “turquoise” and “beige.”</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Cultures often
lexicalize more than one word for a given category because different words can
carry different emotional connotations. We can speak of an adult human female
as a “woman,” “lady,” “gal,” “broad,” or “bitch,” depending upon how we feel
about her. Every word choice is a mini-editorial.</div>
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<span style="mso-text-raise: 4.0pt; position: relative; top: -4.0pt;">___<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Big words are constructed from meaningful smaller parts
called morphemes (literally, “form parts”). The word “bicyclists” is composed
of four morphemes:<span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Quote1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Quote1">
bi cycle
ist s <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Morphemes probably originated as words. Suffixes like
“-ing” were probably words that, over time, became bound to the ends of other
words. (Prior to the invention of writing and word spacing, the difference
between “walking” and “walk ing” would have been a moot point.) A recent
example of a word- turned-morpheme is the prefix “e-” (short for “electronic”)
as in “email” and “ecommerce.” Another is the suffix “-gate” (derived from
“Watergate”), which journalists now use when naming political scandals, such as
“Nannygate” or “Monicagate.” <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
President George
W. Bush had a funny habit of inserting morphemes where they didn’t belong. Mr.
Bush said that certain issues did not “resignate” with the people and that he
did not need to get “subliminabable” about his views. He praised leaders who
were “exemplorary” and was grateful for people who made a commitment to
“embetter” themselves. Speaking of his critics on the eve of the 2000
presidential election, he said famously, “They misunderestimated me.” I point
out President Bush’s linguistic missteps not to make fun of him. (On the issue
of language I sympathized with the President. I used to say “irregardless.”) I
cite these examples because they shed light on a linguistic process so natural
that it normally takes place without a hitch and without notice. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Children learn
how to construct words at an early age. In an experiment now known as “the wug
test,” young children were shown an illustration of an unfamiliar bird-like
creature and told, “This is a wug.” The children were shown a second wug, and
the researcher said, “Now there are two of them. There are two what?” Most
children of age four or older would say, “Two wugs.” They had evidently learned
the general rule for constructing a plural noun. <span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
We keep in our
heads a large mental dictionary of word roots (“dog,” “happy,” “walk”) along
with a small set of rules for inflecting them (“-s,” “un-,” “-ing”). Also in
our mental dictionary is a list of irregular forms that do not follow the rules
(“men,” “went,” “threw”). When a toddler knows the root word and the rule, but
not the irregular form, the child might say something like, “Daddy throwed the
ball,” or, “I saw deers in the woods,” forming constructions that are both cute
and incorrect.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
The average
American high school graduate knows about 45,000 different root words. If you
count names and proper nouns—all the words you can’t play in Scrabble—the
number grows to about 60,000. That number doesn’t include all the variations on
words. It includes “happy,” but not “unhappy,” “happiness,” “happily,” and
“happier.” If you count all common constructions, and especially if you include
such possible but seldom-used constructions as “unhappier,” the number of words
becomes astronomical.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="center" class="aparagraph" style="margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-text-raise: 4.0pt; position: relative; top: -4.0pt;">___<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
For non-native English speakers, learning all the words is
only half the battle. They also have to learn the idioms. In the classic <i>Saturday
Night Live </i>sketch the “Wild and Crazy Guys,” the Czech brothers played by
Steve Martin and Dan Aykroyd try to speak in the vernacular of “swinging” young
Americans, but can’t get their idioms quite right. They say, “We sure have a
drag” (instead of “This sure is a drag”), “You’re standing on the base,"
(instead of “You’re on the mark”), and “Here is a thing I will tell you”
(instead of “I’ll tell you what”).<span style="font-family: "times" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
An idiom is a
phrase, like “throw up” or “make out,” whose meaning is different from the
literal meaning of the words in the phrase. Idioms go hand-in-hand with
metaphor. Many common idioms are based on spatial metaphors (“<i>go</i> crazy” “<i>fall</i> in love”) and transactional metaphors (“<i>give</i> up” “<i>take</i> time”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Some idioms have
quirky anecdotal origins. “High on the hog” refers to the fact that the best
cuts of meat come from the upper portion of a pig. “Close but no cigar”
originated back when cigars were given out as prizes at carnival games. “Always
a bridesmaid, never a bride” was an advertising slogan for Listerine mouthwash
in the 1920s.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="Paragraph">
There are an
estimated 25,000 idioms in English. That’s a lot, quite a few, a whole bunch,
and certainly more than you can shake a stick at.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
Next: <a href="http://themakingofsense.blogspot.ca/2018/02/one-damned-thing-after-another.html">One Damned Thing After Another</a></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-25977944215855287482018-01-28T14:34:00.006-05:002018-02-16T08:38:26.444-05:00Pointing the Finger<div class="aparagraph">
The first symbols were probably gestures<!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span> XE "gestures" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span><![endif]-->. Chimpanzees and other
non-human primates make extensive use of gestures, even though they don’t talk.
Some primate species evolved tendencies for particular gestures—for example,
chest pounding in gorillas. Researchers at Emery University have identified
more than thirty gestures used by chimpanzees and bonobos. These include hand
waving, arm raising, reaching out, and dabbing with a finger. The apes use
these gestures to communicate when they want food, when they want to play, when
they want to be groomed, and when <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
they want sex.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Sometimes the
apes invent new gestures. “We have one group, just one group, where the
chimpanzees hold hands together above their heads when they groom each other
with the other hand,” said Emery researcher Frans de Waal. “It’s a very strange
posture. It was developed by one female named Georgia, and she introduced her
family members to it, and now all the chimps in the group are doing it.”</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Human gestures
must have originated through similar acts of cultural transmission. Many of our
common gestures originated in prehistory with no record of how or why they took
on the meanings they have today. Take the handshake. It is commonly believed that
the handshake grew out of a practice of checking for concealed weapons—and
while that might be true, there is no historical evidence to support the claim.
By the fifth century BC, when the earliest known depictions of handshakes
appeared in ancient Greece, people were already shaking hands just like modern
people do.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
The upraised
middle finger has been a sexually charged gesture of contempt since at least
the times of the ancient Greeks. In <i>The
Clouds</i>, a comedy of the fifth century BC, a character gives the finger to
Socrates. The ancient Romans referred to the gesture as <i>digitus impudicus</i>, meaning “the impudent finger.”</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Common gestures
whose origins are lost to history include the hug, the kiss, the bow, the head
nod, the hand wave, the wink, applause, and (fittingly) the shoulder shrug.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Other gestures have
more recent origins. The salute grew out of a tradition in the British
military requiring soldiers remove their hats in the presence of superior
officers. In the eighteenth century, as headgear became more cumbersome, it
became acceptable to merely pantomime the removal of a hat. </div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
The thumbs-up
gesture for approval traces back to the medieval
custom of using a thumbprint to seal business transactions. Over time, the
upraised thumb came to be associated with agreement and harmony. (Contrary to
the Hollywood movie cliché, the thumbs-up gesture was not used to spare the
lives of ancient Roman gladiators.)</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Crossed fingers originated with the early Christians, who
would cross their fingers to invoke the power of the cross. Over time the gesture
became a secular wish for luck.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
Making the “V”
sign with the back of the hand was a profane gesture that meant essentially “up
yours” until World War II, when the gesture got turned around and its meaning was
changed to “victory.” During the Vietnam War, the counterculture changed the meaning to “peace.”</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
The high five<!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span> XE "high five" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span><![endif]--> originated on a recent American sports team,
though which team is a matter of controversy. It was either the 1977 Los
Angeles Dodgers, the 1979 Louisville basketball team, or the women’s volleyball
teams of the 1960s.</div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
If you’ve ever
played charades, you know that it’s usually easier to just come out and <i>say</i> what you mean. Human communication
evolved primarily through speech, rather than gesture, because speech frees the
hands and eyes to do other things. You can talk while holding a tool or a
weapon or a baby. You can talk in the dark or to someone who isn’t looking at
you. Early humans created symbols in the form of sounds—which is to say, they
created words.<br />
<br />
Next: <a href="https://themakingofsense.blogspot.ca/2018/01/the-ten-thousands-things.html">The Ten Thousand Things</a></div>
<div class="aparagraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-71521133828344484702018-01-28T14:03:00.001-05:002018-02-16T08:36:34.638-05:00Talking Heads<div class="Paragraph">
If you point at something and say to your dog, “Hey, look
over there!” the dog will look at your finger. If you show your dog a picture
of a steak, the dog will sniff the paper and lose interest. And if you talk to
your dog, the dog will enjoy the conversation, but it won’t really understand
what you’re talking about. Dogs don’t “get” symbols.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
A symbol is something that
means something else. Symbols take the form of words, gestures, pictures, or
meaningful objects. Apes and dolphins have only a limited capacity for using
symbols, and other non-human animals seem to have none at all. Something
happened to our ancestors that didn’t happen to theirs.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Around ten million
years ago the earth’s climate began to grow cooler and dryer, causing the dense
tropical forest that covered Africa to recede, leaving expanses of grassland in
its place. Without the protective safety of the trees, some primates made a go
of life among the big cats and other predators on the open plains. Some of them
were able to stand on their hind legs, a trait favored by natural selection
because it helped them see farther and detect danger sooner. Over time hominids
began to walk on two legs, freeing their hands to pick up sticks and stones to
use as weapons or tools.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Natural selection began to
place a hefty premium on intelligence—not just any intelligence, but the kind
of communicative intelligence that makes people effective in social groups.
Even back then, some individuals would have been more articulate than others.
Their gestures and speech-like grunts might have been easier to understand or
might have expressed a richer vocabulary of thought. They would have been
better at warning of danger, communicating the location of food, and
coordinating group activities in hunting and battle. They would have been
better parents. They would have been more attractive and seductive to potential
mates. For possibly all of these reasons, natural selection favored the genes
and brains of those with the gift of gab.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
There must have
been moments when language suddenly became capable of doing things it had never
done before. There must have been a first verb, a first sentence, a first
question. It’s hard to say exactly when or how this happened. Prehistory is a
tale told in stones and bones, and the first words left no traces of
themselves. Most estimates place the origin of language sometime between
200,000 and 50,000 years ago—between the time of the first <i>Homo sapiens</i> and the advent of behaviorally modern humans.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
The stones and
bones suggest that for hundreds of thousands of years, advances in human
cognition were slow. The skulls show a small gradual increase in brain size.
But the stone tools—simple sharpened rocks of generic design—stayed more or
less the same. Then something happened.
Around 100,000 years ago there was a sudden blossoming of human culture. This
cognitive revolution could have been the culmination of many thousands of years
of gradual evolutionary changes to the brain and larynx. It could have been
that the survival pressures of the Ice Age placed an even greater premium on
intelligence. It could have been some powerful new feature of grammar, such as
the ability to express thoughts about thoughts. For whatever reasons, human
artifacts grew more advanced. The stone blades show evidence of more
sophisticated sharpening techniques. Some artifacts show clear evidence that
people were thinking in terms of symbols.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
The oldest
surviving symbols are beads, some of which are about 80,000 years old.
Prehistoric beads are typically seashells with holes drilled through them.
Beads are often found in burial sites, which suggests their function was
somehow symbolic. Beads “said something” about the status and social role the
person wearing them, in much the same way that a modern wedding ring says
something about the person wearing it.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
At a rock shelter
in France named <i>Abri de Cro-Magnon </i>and at similar sites throughout
Europe, archaeologists have found artifacts of a remarkably advanced human
culture from about 30,000 years ago. These Cro-Magnon humans used flaking
techniques to produce sharp stone blades. They left behind blades, beads, bone tools, and burial
sites—the “behavioral B’s” that anthropologists consider to be the signposts of
behaviorally modern humans. Those kinds of artifacts are typically found in
cultures that possess art, music, myths, and even jokes.</div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
Sadly, there are
no extant Cro-Magnon jokes. I guess you had to be there.<br />
<br />
Next: <a href="http://themakingofsense.blogspot.ca/2018/01/pointing-finger.html">Pointing the Finger</a></div>
<div class="Paragraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-41483041480449685422018-01-28T03:57:00.001-05:002018-01-28T03:59:29.811-05:00The History of the World in a Text<div class="paragraph">
Yesterday my daughter sent me a text with a video of her new
cat. As cat videos go, it’s not very good; the cat hardly does anything. But if
you look closely, you will see that a simple text message like that is an
amazing thing.<br />
<br />
Such a thing would
not be possible if people hadn’t invented the electric circuit, the battery,
the telephone, the camera, motion pictures, sound recording, television, computers,
and the Internet. The time stamp alone, “Wed. Dec. 20, 7:20 PM,” would not be
possible if the Europeans hadn’t invented the pendulum clock, if the Romans
hadn’t invented their cale ndar, if the Hindus hadn’t invented their number
system, or if the Phoenicians hadn’t invented the alphabet. If people hadn’t developed
language tens of thousands of years ago, we certainly wouldn’t be sharing cat
videos today.<br />
<br />
Our modern
information culture didn’t just spring up in the last few decades. It is the
product of centuries and millennia of innovation and development, reaching back
to Edison and Gutenberg, to the ancient people who developed writing, math, and
music, to the early humans who spoke the first sentences and formed the first
gestures.<br />
<br />
This blog tells the
stories of those innovations. The stories tell of how our everyday forms of
information came to be invented and designed. They explain lots of things we
take for granted. For instance, why is north up? Who put the alphabet in alphabetical
order? Why is the twelfth month of the year named after the word for ten? They shed
light on how people think and create. They tell of how human consciousness has
shaped the forms of culture, and how those forms, in turn, continue to shape
our consciousness.<br />
<br />
We are the heirs
to a long tradition of design thinking. We stand on the shoulders of giants. Think
about that the next time you look at your phone. In that little screen you can
see the history of the world.</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-67972626777968186342016-06-19T17:46:00.001-04:002018-01-28T03:34:08.900-05:00Welcome<hr />
This is the companion website for the upcoming book, The Making of Sense.<br />
<ul>
<li>Read <a href="http://www.themakingofsense.com/2016/04/contents.html">excerpts </a>from the book.<br />
</li>
<li>Listen to an <a href="http://www.themakingofsense.com/2016/06/kevin-knabe-interview_19.html">interview </a>with Kevin Knabe.
</li>
<li>Follow us on <a href="https://twitter.com/HistoryInAText">Twitter</a>.</li>
</ul>
<hr />
<a class="twitter-timeline" href="https://twitter.com/HistoryInAText">Latest Posts</a> <script async="" charset="utf-8" src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-77154089923634098522016-06-19T17:45:00.002-04:002016-08-21T20:04:50.384-04:00Kevin Knabe InterviewListen to this fascinating in-depth interview with Kevin Knabe and Ben Catanneo, host of the podcast, "All Things Risk."<br />
<br />
Kevin and Ben chat about user experience design, the origin of writing, the calendar and the concept of time, music and art, randomness in design, and more.<br />
<br />
To listen, click the Play button below.<br />
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , "geneva" , sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="libsyn-item-player">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" height="45" mozallowfullscreen="" msallowfullscreen="" oallowfullscreen="" scrolling="no" src="//html5-player.libsyn.com/embed/episode/id/4376363/height/45/width/300/theme/standard/autoplay/no/autonext/no/thumbnail/yes/preload/no/no_addthis/no/direction/forward/" style="border: none;" webkitallowfullscreen="" width="300"></iframe>
</div>
<!-- CLOSE <div class="libsyn-item-player">
-->
<br />
<div class="libsyn-item-content">
<ul class="libsyn-item-free">
<li><a href="http://traffic.libsyn.com/allthingsrisk/Ep_12-_Kevin_Knabe.mp3">Download the Interview</a></li>
<li><a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/the-all-things-risk-podcast/id1054744455?mt=2">Get it on iTunes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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-->Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-50856394526646822112016-04-06T19:27:00.000-04:002016-04-24T08:35:16.898-04:00Radio<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>The First Commercial Broadcast</b></div>
KDKA, Pittsburgh, November 2, 1920<br />
Running time 1:18<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyfN0ju_wSB7yVNL3e0MsC8h4zGgJDcNY23O0Mbl2kl3Rief2OZuM1yo6dV7cuAkzgrwaXGWjGStHP3ffpedQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<br />
<b><br /></b>
<br />
<b>The Hindenberg Disaster</b><br />
WLS, Chicago, May 6, 1937<br />
Running time: 1:20<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<b><br /></b><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwl2cfkRqjT-xdvUulv5REqu_kWbumztlN-Of0AJo3qXP8LDKdzyBx7ZeoyTqQ1lNlOJN10kcJw49MQNIIzOg' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<b>W.C. Fields and Charlie McCarthy</b></div>
<i>The Chase and Sanborn Hour</i>, NBC, c. 1937<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
Running time: 1:57</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<br /></div>
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dy22N1mNaChRaV6kMeXSVbJTDkj_y9g4y10YFvSWzi4JhsssMZyIxK4S6w4GprzdzWSqZKZoGonXsLkCMGfKQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><br /></b><b>The War of the Worlds</b><br />
<i>The Mercury Theater of the Air</i>, CBS, October 31, 1938<br />
Running time 2:18<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyUA0RCFHO2v1yqvjoGWGf7G8i0TMVsNteEf_rwWijgIB4L6joXyHFt6Xk0aB196hCpK5gm7aAYfaaQD2kXCA' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<b>Edward R. Murrow Reports from the London Blitz</b><br />
CBS, August 24, 1940<br />
Running time 2:42<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzV4olJdJOVZYMUJRJB3RnK4MV9AdEEoH9zavYjSiKGEayrHmR7POWXJWg-xK7O6-35NcWgTmslvejrki3K2A' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>The Shot Heard Round the World</b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
WMCA, New York, October 3, 1951</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
Running time: 1:33</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwBrHezha-6JvRB5iAe1xWk6nQl8tbeJ2pl6FRQemXr3hpC5x0km1C1dEsw5_L-BskUE4B6Q40cQV2orbooew' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>Alan Freed Presents Bill Haley and the Comets</b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
CBS, 1956.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
Running time: 3:38</div>
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyfN-uqrhgm6g0tH3Gk2HPAkBgJPGt8sWAUIklBsSCcAp9P3JuRWLAUtCJcEXcRr6uRdF9Py5winnem1oQEpQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Sputnik Radio Signal</b><br />
Source: NASA, 1957<br />
Running time: 0:11<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzHH-vj7Nrw6fYuqoEZbxK10FLnlSaSd0wSckGWciitemHuC0Pq_KLwZLefw6vyygku3aOrn7NUvqpN4XI4xQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-48628481371181238252016-01-01T11:48:00.000-05:002016-11-16T12:59:47.154-05:00Television<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>Mechanical Television</b></div>
Film of early images from a mechanical television, 1926<br />
Running time 0:22<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwbATdVqU6XuAocf_Z3aHA19KLAG3eKiCSJ8S-ZD4czscYMpR9OwNVFnpV1PbuvgABcn6WVZA_kW2jxkj8IEQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<b>Early Electronic Television</b><br />
Filmed reproduction of RCA's first televised images of Felix the Cat, 1933<br />
Running time: 0:31<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dxddv7B_ZMKzXvlXEIKJsscJacHLNDbQJ8BPfwtihQEcGf5tzL9-3gkrZeeqnL5MJsBdak0ls2zr9daGPS7qw' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<br />
<b>First Television Broadcast</b><br />
The first television broadcast by RCA, July 7, 1936<br />
Running time: 22:16<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyqkp5EgucRZOX4LO1swOPsz2nTzVr6EqYRmkm36iAqD4sYnUrqtxqpO8GH-xSPFwtbFP34GO0KF4kEhfEm-w' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
<br />
<div>
<b><i>I Love Lucy</i></b></div>
<div>
<div>
The chocolate sketch, 1952</div>
<div>
Running time: 2:03<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dxoC3rsxTphLawonrR-4X7Fx68hh2rGIfCG8zbcdhE9ftIXley2CDXhJry2lYLZ4EfYbDIVmHGlOy0Rybld4g' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<br /></div>
<div>
</div>
<div>
<b>First Broadcast of Color Videotape</b></div>
<div>
Color videotape of President Eisenhower, May 22, 1958<br />
Running time: 6:29<br />
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<b>Nixon-Kennedy Debate</b></div>
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September 26, 1960<br />
Running time: 8:07<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzsl_B0ry_Js1WJR183aFXa6nd9IDakh_6bfdWYBtcw4gEej97NtyZspbF0WDOVZw6xDLD9VzsHDWd5358mbQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>CBS News Bulletin Announcing Assassination of John F. Kennedy</b></div>
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November 22, 1963<br />
Running time: 0:54<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dw1hfYA_3NA16WUvDh3laajOKXnDsMJaKc-OmjUqpdIGa1WLAFJXPL45kXUAihOfLl-O_d6QV28G9u4Jorw' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>CBS News Announcement of the Death of John F. Kennedy</b></div>
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November 22, 1963</div>
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Running time: 0:46</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-45686636595845643222015-12-01T09:50:00.000-05:002016-11-16T13:03:17.484-05:00Advertising<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b>"Have You Tried Wheaties?"</b></div>
The first radio jingle, 1926<br />
Running time 0:39<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dxbKbFP1aou1cPxql3ysO24N-HaSd0V2eazAwe-GP_he0_2g-EqEov5uLr8QJus0L4AjmdgiiXpaSgSOjr5' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>"Pepsi Cola Hits the Spot"</b><br />
Radio jingle, 1936<br />
Running time: 0:35<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dy2tWBaJztlJzospi1bacm884uOIuxWu6kQtmuzxXEDmkWq26yp7Od4F0kK8a6nQMqKRrLh0ZzYRJFz39v4ig' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>"Bulova Watch Time"</b><br />
The first television commercial, 1941<br />
Running time: 0:10<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwmM2W0gSNcJ78OQ_kMCmYYSxIloN_r8QsMYMVcCdGXSboH0jwwJ_CG5HtKqYmmgy56Y5ElCPIj0v8AuUcLjg' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>"Think Small"</b></div>
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Volkswagen television commercial, 1959<br />
Running time: 0:30<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwb1e7LmQR4Mu481yvQAYVFjtFmWEbF3lkF8X4wFXxShYM2qNO1ARIBjRztUmYxJktgGyQNFMyWxNVteCk-kQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
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<b>"You Deserve a Break Today"</b></div>
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McDonald's television commercial, 1971<br />
Running time: 0:30<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyZT87RJzRrvauFT2RZNzU2y1WX2KavzIwx6qUqml8YTBIkHnU0KoXwoaPsJXWXW0dOE2OW_uPZYRk6dD9Ssw' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>"Evolution"</b></div>
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Trailer from Dove's "Campaign for Real Beauty," 2004</div>
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Running time: 1:16</div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dxSt1hUz8FuSd4mFF9HhiMQDM2tadTTzNrB-ePR-TukFAhbgqfiMQaAh9wB6JzDMK75WN94b43vUzD7aqZY3g' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02433053625749531599noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1001059318067796230.post-60614160409775916002015-08-01T22:54:00.000-04:002016-04-24T08:35:02.288-04:00Motion Pictures<b><i>Horse in Motion</i>, 1886</b><br />
The first photographic motion picture.<br />
Directed by Edwaerd Muybridge.<br />
Running time 0:09.<b></b><br />
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<b><i>Roundhay Garden Scene</i>, 1888</b><br />
The first movie shot with a motion picture camera.<br />
Directed by Louis Le Prince.<br />
Running time 0:02.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='500' height='375' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dyoXvDc4CJwyUPB9VpR-3nylqiY1W86Sv8XHqCp6hlNeNXm7tkiod57YJ5R47g_bqIGPaq6B16z3vXh26dR1Q' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b><i>Fred Ott's Sneeze</i>, 1894</b><br />
One of the first films produced by Thomas Edison's studio.<br />
Directed by K.L. Dickson.<br />
Running time 0:03.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='500' height='375' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dy-VIKz1gaULwGYkQ_56nUcmaYLPBaM8Bohegz9C2ffsAxkNUDAVFGqujXHxAZrlmd5Kq5fKpvyR4Q8eOjBig' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b><i>Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory</i>, 1894</b><br />
The first film shown at a public screening.<br />
Directed by Louis Lumière.<br />
Running time 0:34.<br />
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<b><i>A Trip to the Moon</i>, 1902</b><br />
One of the first stories on film.<br />
Directed by George Méliès.<br />
Running time 12:51.<br />
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<b><i>The Great Train Robbery</i>, 1903</b><br />
The most influential film from Edison's studio.<br />
Directed by Edwin S. Porter.<br />
Running time 11:50.<br />
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<b>From <i>The Birth of a Nation</i>, 1915</b><br />
An influential early use of continuity editing.<br />
Directed by D.W. Griffith.<br />
Running time 6:33.<br />
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<b>The Kuleshov Effect, circa 1920</b><br />
An experiment on the effects of montage.<br />
Directed by Lev Kuleshov<br />
Running time 0:45.<br />
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<b><br /></b>
<b>From <i>The Battleship Potemkin</i>, 1926</b><br />
An early influential use of montage editing.<br />
Directed by Sergei Eisenstein.<br />
Running time 1:55.</div>
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<b>From <i>The Jazz Singer</i>, 1928</b><br />
The first feature film with synchronized sound.<br />
Directed by Alan Croslund.<br />
Running time 2:05.<br />
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<b><br /></b>
<b>From <i>Citizen Kane</i>, 1941</b><br />
The greatest film of all-time, according to the American Film Institute.<br />
Directed by Orson Wells.<br />
Running time 2:05.<br />
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<b>From <i>The Wizard of Oz</i>, 1939</b><br />
An early use of Technicolor.<br />
Directed by Victor Fleming.<br />
Running time 1:58.<br />
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<b>Trailer for <i>Star Wars</i>, 1977</b><br />
The movie that set a new standard for special effects.<br />
Directed by George Lucas.<br />
Running time 1:07.<br />
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